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disruptive_entrepreneurship [2021/09/19 23:32] – [11. Disrupting for purpose] ntnsndrdisruptive_entrepreneurship [2025/08/11 17:48] (current) – external edit 127.0.0.1
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 **MDST 2011** **MDST 2011**
  
-*Disruption* has become a hallowed achievement in contemporary business culture, to the point that we forget it used to be a bad thing. What, exactly, do entrepreneurs, investors, and internet evangelists mean by the word? What have been the great disruptions of our time, and who wound up disrupted?+*Disruption* has become a hallowed achievement in contemporary business culture. What, exactly, do entrepreneurs, investors, and Internet evangelists mean by the word? What have been the great disruptions of our time, and who wound up disrupted?
  
-This course is a hands-on exploration of disruptive media cultures, intended for entrepreneurs, critics, and activists alike. We will encounter disruptions in the world around us and devise some of our own. Students should expect to enlarge their entrepreneurial repertoires, but also to experience fresh trepidation about entrepreneurship's possible effects.+This course is a hands-on exploration of disruption as a practice and a theory, which goes to the heart of contemporary society. We will encounter disruptions in the world around us and devise some of our own. Students should expect to enlarge their entrepreneurial repertoires, but also to experience fresh trepidation about disruption's possible consequences.
  
  
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 <nathan.schneider@colorado.edu>    <nathan.schneider@colorado.edu>   
 Armory Building, 1B24    Armory Building, 1B24   
-Office hours: Wednesday at 4-5 p.m., or by appointment ([[:email_etiquette|via email]])   +Office hours: Wednesday at 3-5 p.m., or by appointment ([[:email_etiquette|via email]])   
 Website: [nathanschneider.info](https://nathanschneider.info) Website: [nathanschneider.info](https://nathanschneider.info)
  
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 ## The business model ## The business model
  
-The course consists of five evaluated components; three are consecutive "phases" and two are ongoing.+The course consists of six evaluated components; three are consecutive "phases" and three are ongoing.
  
 ### Phase one: Report ### Phase one: Report
 *20 percent* *20 percent*
  
-Early in the course, each student produces a brief, researched report on a past disruption. Write an internal memo by an employee of an incumbent organization as it comes to terms with a potentially threatening disruption taking place. Explain it clearly to colleagues and suggest possible responses that their organization might take. The report should be between 1,200 and 1,500 words, formatted and written appropriately (and creatively) in the guise of an official document from the organization. Here and in future projects, engage with assigned materials for the course in a way that demonstrates a sophisticated grasp and that integrates usefully with the argument. Evaluation criteria are as follows:+Early in the course, each student produces a brief, researched report on a past disruption. Write an internal memo by an employee of an incumbent organization as it comes to terms with a potentially threatening disruption taking place. Examples of incumbent organizations include large corporations, governance agencies, and cultural institutions. Explain the disruption clearly to colleagues and suggest possible responses that their organization might take. The report should be between 1,200 and 1,500 words, formatted and written appropriately (and creatively) in the guise of an official document from the organization. Evaluation criteria are as follows:
  
   * Completion of the assignment with clarity, stylistic correctness, and creativity   * Completion of the assignment with clarity, stylistic correctness, and creativity
   * Comprehension of the disruption and explanation of what qualifies it as disruptive   * Comprehension of the disruption and explanation of what qualifies it as disruptive
   * Evidence of self-directed research beyond assigned materials, including at least two peer-reviewed [[scholarly sources]] and relevant market data, using [[citation standards|appropriate citation]]   * Evidence of self-directed research beyond assigned materials, including at least two peer-reviewed [[scholarly sources]] and relevant market data, using [[citation standards|appropriate citation]]
-  * Meaningful engagement with at least two assigned materials from the course+  * Meaningful [[engagement with assigned sources|engagement]] with at least two assigned sources from the course
  
 ### Phase two: Presentation ### Phase two: Presentation
-*25 percent*+*20 percent*
  
-The second project for the course is a presentation to the class about the effects of a disruptive innovation. Students should interview at least two people (outside the CU community) with direct experience of having their way of life or livelihood challenged by the disruption. In the presentation, students will share interviewees' insights, alongside an explanation of the nature of the disruption and its broader context. This assignment is conducted in pairs, who will present 10-to-12 minute presentations with slides. Students may form groups of three as well; these will required to present three interviews and three peer-reviewed sources, rather than the otherwise required two.+The second project for the course is a presentation to the class about the human impacts of a disruptive innovation. Each student should interview at least one person (outside the CU community) whose way of life or livelihood has been threatened by the disruption. In the presentation, students will share interviewees' insights, alongside an explanation of the nature of the disruption and its broader context. This assignment is conducted in groups of 3-4, who will present 10-minute presentations with slides.
  
 Each presentation should cover a unique topic. Evaluation criteria are as follows: Each presentation should cover a unique topic. Evaluation criteria are as follows:
  
   * Completion of the assignment with clarity, stylistic correctness, and creativity   * Completion of the assignment with clarity, stylistic correctness, and creativity
-  * Comprehension of the disruption and explanation of what qualifies it as disruptive +  * Comprehension of the disruption, including its history, market dynamics, and what qualifies it as disruptive 
-  * Insightful interviews in disrupted communities, along with contextual data on social impacts +  * Insightful interviews in disrupted communities by each student (duly credited), along with contextual data on social impacts 
-  * Evidence of self-directed research beyond assigned materials, including at least two peer-reviewed [[scholarly sources]], and [[citation standards|appropriate citation]] +  * Meaningful [[engagement with assigned sources|engagement]] with at least two assigned sources from the course
-  * Meaningful engagement with at least one assigned material from the course+
  
 ### Phase three: Whitepaper ### Phase three: Whitepaper
 *25 percent* *25 percent*
  
-At the conclusion of the course, students produce a [[whitepaper]] outlining an original proposal for a disruption involving networked digital media. In between 1,500 and 1,800 words, describe the nature of the disruption, its economic and technological context, and the means of its financing and growth. Be sure to also consider its potential social effects.+At the conclusion of the course, students produce a [[whitepaper]] outlining an original proposal for a disruption involving networked digital media. It can advance business, social, or policy goals. In between 1,500 and 1,800 words, describe the nature of the disruption, its economic and technological context, and the means of its financing and growth. Be sure to also consider its potential social effects.
  
 Students will twice present their ideas to the class---first as a one-minute practice run for feedback and, second, as a one-minute pitch with one parsimonious slide. Students will twice present their ideas to the class---first as a one-minute practice run for feedback and, second, as a one-minute pitch with one parsimonious slide.
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 Evaluation criteria are as follows: Evaluation criteria are as follows:
  
-  * Completion of the assignment with clarity, stylistic correctness, and creativity, including an in-class pitch during the final week+  * Completion of the assignment with clarity, stylistic correctness, and creativity
   * Comprehension of the disruption and explanation of what qualifies it as disruptive   * Comprehension of the disruption and explanation of what qualifies it as disruptive
-  * Evidence of self-directed research beyond assigned materials, including at least two peer-reviewed [[scholarly sources]] and relevant market data, using [[citation standards|appropriate citation]] +  * Evidence of self-directed research beyond assigned materials, including at least two peer-reviewed [[scholarly sources]] and relevant market data, using APA citation 
-  * Meaningful engagement with at least two assigned materials from the course +  * Meaningful [[engagement with assigned sources|engagement]] with at least two assigned sources from the courses 
-  * Clear, compelling in-class pitch+  * Clear, compelling in-class pitch with an elegant slide
  
-### Class participation +### Quizzes 
-*20 percent*+*15 percent*
  
-All students should contribute to class discussions as active listeners, question-askers, commentators, and critics. Respectful disagreement with the instructor and fellow students is welcome and encouraged. Students will also pitch their own disruptive ideas to the class. Attendance will not be taken formally, but meaningful participation is not compatible with absence. Be prepared to discuss each week's assigned materials by the start of that week's first meeting.+Quizzes based on readings and lectures will occur at random intervals during class using Canvas. Quizzes are meant to be taken individually, in class, without referencing external materials. Deviating from these norms will be regarded as a violation of the campus Honor Code. 
 + 
 + 
 +### Class participation 
 +*10 percent*
  
-Evaluation takes place at the midterm and the end of the course, with each evaluation period weighted equally. Evaluation is based on the following:+All students should contribute to class discussions as active listeners, question-askers, commentators, and critics. Respectful disagreement with the instructor and fellow students is welcome and encouraged. Attendance will not be taken formally, but meaningful participation is not compatible with absence. Be prepared to discuss each week's assigned materials by the start of that week's first meeting.
  
-  * Comments and questions that advance the conversation, with evidence of listening to others and engagement with assigned materials (10 points) +Evaluation takes place at the midterm and the end of the course, with each evaluation period weighted equally. Evaluation is based on:
-  * Flash quizzes at random intervals (10 points)+
  
 +* Contributing comments and questions that advance the conversation
 +* Evidence of listening to others
 +* [[engagement with assigned sources|Engagement]] with assigned materials
  
 ### Entrepreneurial events ### Entrepreneurial events
 *10 percent* *10 percent*
  
-Part of the course is participation in two synchronous events in the Boulder entrepreneurial community. Before the end of the day after each event, submit a discussion post in Canvas about your experience there. With this, include proof of participation (such as a photo of yourself there or of you and your screen). Evaluation criteria are as follows:+Part of the course is participation in two synchronous events in the Boulder entrepreneurial community---at least one on campus. Within 24 hours after each event, submit a discussion post in Canvas about your experience there. With this, include proof of participation (such as a photo of yourself there or of you and your screen). Evaluation criteria are as follows: 
 + 
 +  * Compelling proof of attendance at the event 
 +  * Insightful, 300-500 word reflection on an aspect of each event 
 +  * [[engagement with assigned sources|Engagement]] with at least one of the assigned materials in each analysis 
 + 
 +Entrepreneurship-related events can be found at the campus [Innovation & Entrepreneurship Initiative website](https://www.colorado.edu/innovate/events), [Silicon Flatirons](https://siliconflatirons.org/events/), and [Meetup](https://www.meetup.com/cities/us/co/boulder/events/).
  
-  * Compelling proof of attendance at: 
-      - The [Innovation & Entrepreneurship Fall Kickoff](https://www.colorado.edu/innovate/events) 
-      - A second event, on or off campus, of your choosing 
-  * Insightful, 300-500 word analysis of an aspect of each event 
-  * Engagement with at least one of the assigned materials in each analysis 
  
-Entrepreneurship-related events can be found at the campus [Innovation & Entrepreneurship Initiative website](https://www.colorado.edu/innovate/events), [Silicon Flatirons](https://siliconflatirons.org/events/), [Startup Digest](https://www.startupdigest.com/digests/boulder-denver), and [Meetup](https://www.meetup.com/cities/us/co/boulder/events/). 
  
 ### Grading ### Grading
 +
 +Grading will follow the expectations stated in this syllabus.
 +
 +If you need an extension on any assignment, consult your instructor ahead of time. Late projects will be penalized 5 percentage points per day.
 +
 +Plagiarism and similar lapses in [[academic honesty]] can result in no credit for the assignment and referral to campus authorities. 
  
 Based on the stated percentage structure, grades will be awarded as follows: A (94-100), A- (90-93), B+ (87-89), B (83-86), B- (80-82), C+ (77-79), C (73-76), C- (70-72), D+ (67-69), D (63-66), D- (60-62), F (0-59). The minimum passing grade is 60 for undergraduates and 70 for graduate students. Based on the stated percentage structure, grades will be awarded as follows: A (94-100), A- (90-93), B+ (87-89), B (83-86), B- (80-82), C+ (77-79), C (73-76), C- (70-72), D+ (67-69), D (63-66), D- (60-62), F (0-59). The minimum passing grade is 60 for undergraduates and 70 for graduate students.
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 * Adhere to all [[university policies]] regarding academic integrity, accessibility, behavior, discrimination, misconduct, inclusivity, and religious observances; we take responsibility for understanding them and the relevant procedures * Adhere to all [[university policies]] regarding academic integrity, accessibility, behavior, discrimination, misconduct, inclusivity, and religious observances; we take responsibility for understanding them and the relevant procedures
 * Respect student privacy, keeping any materials or statements shared in class confidential unless permission is granted to do otherwise * Respect student privacy, keeping any materials or statements shared in class confidential unless permission is granted to do otherwise
-* Be present in our interactions together, refraining from the use of [[screen devices]] unless for collective work or accessibility, upon agreement with the instructor+* Be present in our interactions together, keeping programs, tabs, and notifications unrelated to class off during meetings
  
 If you find yourself in a position where lack of access to food, housing, health care, or other basic necessities interferes with your studies, consider seeking support from the [Dean of Students](https://www.colorado.edu/studentaffairs/deanofstudents) and, if you feel comfortable doing so, your instructor. We will work to assist you however we can. If you find yourself in a position where lack of access to food, housing, health care, or other basic necessities interferes with your studies, consider seeking support from the [Dean of Students](https://www.colorado.edu/studentaffairs/deanofstudents) and, if you feel comfortable doing so, your instructor. We will work to assist you however we can.
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 The course topics, like the assignments, proceed in three phases. First, we acquaint ourselves with some processes and ideologies associated with Silicon Valley-style entrepreneurial culture and discourses of disruption. Second, we consider the human impacts of disruptive change. Third, we explore a variety of strategies and shortcomings of disruptive and entrepreneurial thinking. The course topics, like the assignments, proceed in three phases. First, we acquaint ourselves with some processes and ideologies associated with Silicon Valley-style entrepreneurial culture and discourses of disruption. Second, we consider the human impacts of disruptive change. Third, we explore a variety of strategies and shortcomings of disruptive and entrepreneurial thinking.
  
-Except for the book we read in Phase Two, all readings should be available online. If you cannot access them, you should be able to do so using the campus network (either on campus or via VPN).+Except for the book we read in Phase Two, all readings should be available online. Some readings require using the university network (either on campus or via VPN).
  
 ### Phase one: Disruption ### Phase one: Disruption
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 What does this overused word even mean? What does this overused word even mean?
  
-#### 1. A mindset+#### 1. Startup communities
  
-* Mike Green, "[Developing the Entrepreneurial Mindset](https://press.rebus.community/media-innovation-and-entrepreneurship/chapter/developing-entrepreneurial-mindset/)" in Michelle Ferrier and Elizabeth Mays (eds.), _Media Innovation and Entrepreneurship_ (Rebus Community, 2017--2019) 
 * Brad Feld, {{:lib:feld-startup_communities-excerpt.pdf|chapters 1-3}} in _Startup Communities: Building an Entrepreneurial Ecosystem in Your City_ (Wiley, 2012) * Brad Feld, {{:lib:feld-startup_communities-excerpt.pdf|chapters 1-3}} in _Startup Communities: Building an Entrepreneurial Ecosystem in Your City_ (Wiley, 2012)
 +* Xiaowei R. Wang, "[Letter from Shenzhen](https://logicmag.io/scale/letter-from-shenzhen/)," _Logic(s)_ (April 1, 2018)
  
 #### 2. Theory and cliché #### 2. Theory and cliché
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 * Clayton M. Christensen, Michael E. Raynor, and Rory McDonald, “[What Is Disruptive Innovation?](https://hbr.org/2015/12/what-is-disruptive-innovation),” _Harvard Business Review_ (December 1, 2015) * Clayton M. Christensen, Michael E. Raynor, and Rory McDonald, “[What Is Disruptive Innovation?](https://hbr.org/2015/12/what-is-disruptive-innovation),” _Harvard Business Review_ (December 1, 2015)
 * Jill Lepore, "[The Disruption Machine](http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/06/23/the-disruption-machine)," _New Yorker_ (June 23, 2014) * Jill Lepore, "[The Disruption Machine](http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/06/23/the-disruption-machine)," _New Yorker_ (June 23, 2014)
 +* Drake Bennett, "{{:lib:christensen-bloomberg.pdf|Clayton Christensen Responds to New Yorker Takedown of 'Disruptive Innovation'}}," _Bloomberg_ (June 21, 2014)
  
 #### 3. Organizational vessels #### 3. Organizational vessels
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 #### 4. Raising rounds #### 4. Raising rounds
  
-* Kim-Mai Cutler, "[The Unicorn Hunters](https://logicmag.io/04-the-unicorn-hunters/)," _Logic_ no. 4 (2018)+* Kim-Mai Cutler, "[The Unicorn Hunters](https://logicmag.io/04-the-unicorn-hunters/)," _Logic(s)_ no. 4 (2018)
 * Paul Graham, "[Startup = Growth](http://www.paulgraham.com/growth.html)" (September 2012) * Paul Graham, "[Startup = Growth](http://www.paulgraham.com/growth.html)" (September 2012)
 +* Daisy Onubogu, "[Underrepresented Founders are Merely Collateral Damage](https://medium.com/zebras-unite/underrepresented-founders-are-merely-collateral-damage-cae17f6d3379)" (February 25, 2021)
  
-#### 5. Origin stories+#### 5. Endgames 
 + 
 +* Peter Thiel with Blake Masters, _[Zero to One: Notes on Startups, or How to Build the Future](https://libcat.colorado.edu/Record/b11042512)_, chapters 4-5 (Crown Currency, 2014) 
 +* Cory Doctorow, "[Tiktok's Enshittification](https://pluralistic.net/2023/01/21/potemkin-ai/#hey-guys)," _Pluralistic_ (January 21, 2023) 
 +* Constance Grady, "[How Does Elon Musk Get Away with It All?](https://www.vox.com/culture/23833377/elon-musk-image-analysis-acts-of-love-talulah-riley)" _Vox_ (Aug 17, 2023) 
 + 
 +#### 6. Capitalism, all along
  
 * Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, [preamble and chapter 1](https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm), _Manifesto of the Communist Party_ (1848) * Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, [preamble and chapter 1](https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm), _Manifesto of the Communist Party_ (1848)
 * Joseph A. Schumpeter, "[The Creative Response in Economic History](https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2113338.pdf)," _Journal of Economic History_ 7, no. 2 (November 1947) * Joseph A. Schumpeter, "[The Creative Response in Economic History](https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2113338.pdf)," _Journal of Economic History_ 7, no. 2 (November 1947)
- 
-#### 6. The mother of the modern 
- 
-* Silvia Federici, "[The Accumulation of Labor and the Degradation of Women](https://anarchivists.gitbooks.io/caliban/content/accumulation.html)," in _Caliban and the Witch: Women, the Body, and Primitive Accumulation_ (Autonomedia, 2014) 
-* Charles C. Mann, "[Why Billington Survived](https://search-ebscohost-com.colorado.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=719025&site=ehost-live&scope=site&ebv=EK&ppid=Page-__-35)," in _1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus_ (Vintage, 2006) 
- 
  
 ### Phase two: Disrupted ### Phase two: Disrupted
  
-This year, phase two will center around how Amazon has shaped US society. We will do so through the lens of one book, available in the bookstore:+Phase two centers around how one company, Amazon, has disrupted US society, through the lens of one book, available in the bookstore:
  
 * Alec MacGillis, _Fulfillment: Winning and Losing in One-Click America_ (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2021) * Alec MacGillis, _Fulfillment: Winning and Losing in One-Click America_ (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2021)
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 What, then, can we do? What, then, can we do?
  
-#### 10. Disaster+#### 10. Disrupting work
  
-* From Rebecca Solnit, "[Prelude: Falling Together](http://lithub.com/rebecca-solnit-how-to-survive-a-disaster/)," _A Paradise Built in Hell: The Extraordinary Communities That Arise in Disaster_ (Viking, 2009) +* Ben Tarnoff, _[The Making of the Tech Worker Movement](https://logicmag.io/the-making-of-the-tech-worker-movement/full-text/)_ (Logic(s), 2020) 
-* Naomi Klein, "[How Power Profits from Disaster](https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jul/06/naomi-klein-how-power-profits-from-disaster)," _Guardian_ (July 6, 2017)+* Anisia Uzeyman and Saul Williams (dirs.), _[Neptune Frost](https://colorado.kanopy.com/node/12574154)_ (2021)
  
-#### 11. Disrupting for purpose+#### 11. Disrupting capital
  
 +* Richard Barbrook and Andy Cameron, "[The Californian Ideology](https://monoskop.org/images/d/dc/Barbrook_Richard_Cameron_Andy_1996_The_Californian_Ideology.pdf)," _Science as Culture_ 6, no. 1 (1996)
 * Jennifer Brandel, Mara Zepeda, Astrid Scholz, and Aniyia Williams, "[Zebras Fix What Unicorns Break](https://medium.com/@sexandstartups/zebrasfix-c467e55f9d96)" (March 8, 2017) * Jennifer Brandel, Mara Zepeda, Astrid Scholz, and Aniyia Williams, "[Zebras Fix What Unicorns Break](https://medium.com/@sexandstartups/zebrasfix-c467e55f9d96)" (March 8, 2017)
-* Malene Alleyne, Camille Canon, Amelia Evans, Yichen Feng, Nathan Schneider, and Mara Zepeda, _[Exit to Community: A Community Primer](https://www.colorado.edu/lab/medlab/2020/08/31/exit-community-community-primer)_ (Media Enterprise Design Lab, 2020) 
  
-#### 12. Decentralize everything+#### 12. Disruptive citizenship
  
-* Lana Swartz, “[Blockchain Dreams: Imagining Techno-Economic Alternatives After Bitcoin](http://llaannaa.com/papers/Swartz_Blockchain_Dreams.pdf),” in _Another Economy Is Possible: Culture and Economy in a Time of Crisis_, ed. Manuel Castells (Polity, 2017), 82--105 +* Maria Mazzucato, "[The Entrepreneurial State](https://www.proquest.com/docview/912870584/fulltextPDF/86FE0FED4208456EPQ/1?accountid=14503)," _Soundings_ 49 (Winter 2011) 
-* Jarrod Dicker, "[Cities of Ghosts Await Their DAO Revival](https://darkstar.mirror.xyz/eYRttcLec0IXODpzLFsHZTRdzuWosBwfyVKnSc93NdA)," _Dark Star_ (June 2, 2021)+* Malka Older, "[Temporary Organizations in Disaster Response: Crisis, Temporality, and Governance](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00027642221144847)," _American Behavioral Scientist_ (2022)
  
-#### 13. The new citizen+#### 13. Disrupting time
  
-* Maria Mazzucato, "[The Entrepreneurial State](https://www.proquest.com/docview/912870584/fulltextPDF/86FE0FED4208456EPQ/1?accountid=14503)," _Soundings_ 49 (Winter 2011) +* Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould, "[Punctuated Equilibria: An Alternative to Phyletic Gradualism](https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/classictexts/eldredge.pdf)," in Schopf, T.J.M. (ed.), _Models in Paleobiology_ (Freeman Cooper, 1972) 
-* Lilly Irani, "[Hackathons and the Making of Entrepreneurial Citizenship](https://escholarship.org/uc/item/33q5t84v)," _Science, Technology & Human Values_ 40, no. 5 (2015)+* Walidah Imarisha, "[All Organizing Is Science Fiction](https://archive.org/details/podcast_umass-amherst-history-departme_walidah-imarisha-all-organiz_1000423858347)," History Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst (November 13, 2018)
  
-#### 14. Fantasies+#### 14. Disruption Fantasies
  
 * David Edgerton, "Introduction" and "Maintenance" in _[The Shock of the Old: Technology and Global History Since 1900](http://www.wtf.tw/ref/edgerton.pdf)_ (Profile Books, 2008) * David Edgerton, "Introduction" and "Maintenance" in _[The Shock of the Old: Technology and Global History Since 1900](http://www.wtf.tw/ref/edgerton.pdf)_ (Profile Books, 2008)
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 * _[How I Built This with Guy Raz](https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510313/how-i-built-this)_, NPR podcast * _[How I Built This with Guy Raz](https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510313/how-i-built-this)_, NPR podcast
 +* [Resources](https://www.theselc.org/resources), Sustainable Economies Law Center
 * [Tech Workers Coalition newsletter](https://news.techworkerscoalition.org/) * [Tech Workers Coalition newsletter](https://news.techworkerscoalition.org/)
-* Y Combinator, [Startup School library](https://www.startupschool.org/library)+* [Startup School library](https://www.startupschool.org/library), Y Combinator
  
  
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